Debate remains around the anatomical origins of specific brain cell subtypes and lineage relationships within the human forebrain. Thus, direct observation in the mature human brain is critical for a complete understanding of its structural organization and cellular origins. Here we utilize brain mosaic variation within specific cell types as distinct indicators for clonal dynamics, denoted as cell-type-specific mosaic variant barcode analysis. From four hemispheres and two different human neurotypical donors, we identified 287 and 780 mosaic variants, respectively, that were used to deconvolve clonal dynamics. Clonal spread and allele fractions within the brain reveal that local hippocampal excitatory neurons are more lineage-restricted than resident neocortical excitatory neurons or resident basal ganglia GABAergic inhibitory neurons. Furthermore, simultaneous genome transcriptome analysis at both a cell-type-specific and a single-cell level suggests a dorsal neocortical origin for a subgroup of DLX1+ inhibitory neurons that disperse radially from an origin shared with excitatory neurons. Finally, the distribution of mosaic variants across 17 locations within one parietal lobe reveals that restriction of clonal spread in the anterior–posterior axis precedes restriction in the dorsal–ventral axis for both excitatory and inhibitory neurons. Thus, cell-type-resolved somatic mosaicism can uncover lineage relationships governing the development of the human forebrain.

From four hemispheres and two different human neurotypical donors, we identified 287 and 780 mosaic variants, respectively, that were used to deconvolve clonal dynamics. 

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Cell-type-resolved mosaicism reveals clonal dynamics of the human forebrain

Background Recent studies have identified brain somatic variants as a cause of focal epilepsy. These studies relied on resected tissue from epilepsy surgery which is not available in most patients. The use of trace tissue adherent to depth electrodes used for stereo electroencephalography (stereo EEG) has been proposed as an alternative but is hampered by the low cell quality and contamination by non-brain cells. Here, we use our improved depth electrode harvesting technique that purifies neuronal nuclei to achieve molecular diagnosis in a patient with focal cortical dysplasia (FCD).

Methods Depth electrode tips were collected, pooled by brain region and seizure onset zone, nuclei isolated and sorted using fluorescence-activated nuclei sorting (FANS). Somatic DNA was amplified from neuronal and astrocyte nuclei using primary template amplification followed by exome sequencing of neuronal DNA from the affected pool, unaffected pool, and saliva. The identified variant was validated using droplet digital PCR.

Results An adolescent male with drug-resistant genetic-structural epilepsy due to left anterior insula FCD had daily focal aware seizures. Stereo EEG confirmed seizure onset in the left anterior insula. The two anterior insula electrodes were combined as the affected pool and three frontal electrodes as the unaffected pool. FANS isolated 140 neuronal nuclei from the affected and 245 neuronal nuclei from the unaffected pool. A novel somatic missense MTOR variant (p.Leu489Met, CADD score 23.7) was identified in the affected neuronal sample. Droplet digital PCR confirmed a mosaic gradient (VAF 0.78% in affected neuronal sample, variant was absent in all other samples).

Conclusions Our finding confirms that harvesting neuronal DNA from depth electrodes followed by molecular analysis to identify brain somatic variants is feasible. Our novel method represents a significant improvement compared to the previous method by focusing the analysis on high quality cells of the cell type of interest.

Unlocking the mystery of epilepsy: Innovative techniques reveal brain somatic variants, paving the way for personalized treatments.

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Identification of a mosaic MTOR variant in purified neuronal DNA in a patient with focal cortical dysplasia using a novel depth electrode harvesting technique

Accurate somatic mutation detection from single-cell DNA sequencing is challenging due to amplification-related artifacts. To reduce this artifact burden, an improved amplification technique, primary template-directed amplification (PTA), was recently introduced. We analyzed whole-genome sequencing data from 52 PTA-amplified single neurons using SCAN2, a new genotyper we developed to leverage mutation signatures and allele balance in identifying somatic single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) and small insertions and deletions (indels) in PTA data. Our analysis confirms an increase in nonclonal somatic mutation in single neurons with age, but revises the estimated rate of this accumulation to 16 SNVs per year. We also identify artifacts in other amplification methods. Most importantly, we show that somatic indels increase by at least three per year per neuron and are enriched in functional regions of the genome such as enhancers and promoters. Our data suggest that indels in gene-regulatory elements have a considerable effect on genome integrity in human neurons.

Our data suggest that indels in gene-regulatory elements have a considerable effect on genome integrity in human neurons.


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Single-cell genome sequencing of human neurons identifies somatic point mutation and indel enrichment in regulatory elements

Dementia in Alzheimer’s disease progresses alongside neurodegeneration1–4, but the specific events that cause neuronal dysfunction and death remain poorly understood. During normal ageing, neurons progressively accumulate somatic mutations5 at rates similar to those of dividing cells6,7 which suggests that genetic factors, environmental exposures or disease states might influence this accumulation5. Here we analysed single-cell whole-genome sequencing data from 319 neurons from the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of individuals with Alzheimer’s disease and neurotypical control individuals. We found that somatic DNA alterations increase in individuals with Alzheimer’s disease, with distinct molecular patterns. Normal neurons accumulate mutations primarily in an age-related pattern (signature A), which closely resembles ‘clock-like’ mutational signatures that have been previously described in healthy and cancerous cells6–10. In neurons affected by Alzheimer’s disease, additional DNA alterations are driven by distinct processes (signature C) that highlight C>A and other specific nucleotide changes. These changes potentially implicate nucleotide oxidation4,11, which we show is increased in Alzheimer’s-disease-affected neurons in situ. Expressed genes exhibit signature-specific damage, and mutations show a transcriptional strand bias, which suggests that transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair has a role in the generation of mutations. The alterations in Alzheimer’s disease affect coding exons and are predicted to create dysfunctional genetic knockout cells and proteostatic stress. Our results suggest that known pathogenic mechanisms in Alzheimer’s disease may lead to genomic damage to neurons that can progressively impair function. The aberrant accumulation of DNA alterations in neurodegeneration provides insight into the cascade of molecular and cellular events that occurs in the development of Alzheimer’s disease.

Here we analysed single-cell whole-genome sequencing data from 319 neurons from the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of individuals with Alzheimer’s disease and neurotypical control individuals.

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Somatic genomic changes in single Alzheimer’s disease neurons

Primary Template-directed Amplification or PTA employs controlled reaction parameters to reproducibly recover greater than 95% of the genome of single-cells and severely limited input samples with best-in-class fidelity and uniformity. 

Discover the difference BioSkryb Genomics can make for you in WGA

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Improvements in whole genome amplification (WGA) would enable new types of basic and applied biomedical research, including studies of intratissue genetic diversity that require more accurate single-cell genotyping. Here, we present primary template-directed amplification (PTA), an isothermal WGA method that reproducibly captures >95% of the genomes of single cells in a more uniform and accurate manner than existing approaches, resulting in significantly improved variant calling sensitivity and precision. To illustrate the types of studies that are enabled by PTA, we developed direct measurement of environmental mutagenicity (DMEM), a tool for mapping genome-wide interactions of mutagens with single living human cells at base-pair resolution. In addition, we utilized PTA for genome-wide off-target indel and structural variant detection in cells that had undergone CRISPR-mediated genome editing, establishing the feasibility for performing single-cell evaluations of biopsies from edited tissues. The improved precision and accuracy of variant detection with PTA overcomes the current limitations of accurate WGA, which is the major obstacle to studying genetic diversity and evolution at cellular resolution.

The improved precision and accuracy of variant detection with PTA overcomes the current limitations of accurate WGA, which is the major obstacle to studying genetic diversity and evolution at cellular resolution.

Accurate Genomic Variant Detection in Single Cells with Primary Template-Directed Amplification

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We analyzed 131 human brains (44 neurotypical, 19 with Tourette syndrome, 9 with schizophrenia, and 59 with autism) for somatic mutations after whole genome sequencing to a depth of more than 200×. Typically, brains had 20 to 60 detectable single-nucleotide mutations, but ~6% of brains harbored hundreds of somatic mutations. Hypermutability was associated with age and damaging mutations in genes implicated in cancers and, in some brains, reflected in vivo clonal expansions. Somatic duplications, likely arising during development, were found in ~5% of normal and diseased brains, reflecting background mutagenesis. Brains with autism were associated with mutations creating putative transcription factor binding motifs in enhancer-like regions in the developing brain. The top-ranked affected motifs corresponded to MEIS (myeloid ectopic viral integration site) transcription factors, suggesting a potential link between their involvement in gene regulation and autism.

Our study revealed a complex etiology of somatic mutations in brain and their possible relationship with phenotype.

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Analysis of somatic mutations in 131 human brains reveals aging-associated hypermutability

Characterizing the mechanisms of somatic mutations in the brain is important for understanding aging and disease, but little is known about the mutational patterns of different cell types. We performed whole-genome sequencing of 71 oligodendrocytes and 51 neurons from neurotypical individuals (0.4 to 104 years old) and identified >67,000 somatic single nucleotide variants (sSNVs) and small insertions and deletions (indels). While both cell types accumulate mutations with age, oligodendrocytes accumulate sSNVs 69% faster than neurons (27/year versus 16/year) whereas indels accumulate 42% slower (1.8/year versus 3.1/year). Correlation with single-cell RNA and chromatin accessibility from the same brains revealed that oligodendrocyte mutations are enriched in inactive genomic regions and are distributed similarly to mutations in brain cancers. In contrast, neuronal mutations are enriched in open, transcriptionally active chromatin. These patterns highlight differences in the mutagenic processes in glia and neurons and suggest cell type-specific, age-related contributions to neurodegeneration and oncogenesis.

In this study, we assessed genome-wide rates and patterns of aging-related somatic mutations in OLs compared to neurons isolated from the same individuals with single-cell whole-genome sequencing (scWGS).

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Contrasting somatic mutation patterns in aging human neurons and oligodendrocytes

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## Why invest in ultra-deep bulk sequencing if you can accurately detect the rarest of somatic mutations in single neurons?

Christopher Walsh

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PTA is our method of choice if you want reproducible, efficient, and evenly amplified genomes from single cells for single nucleotide variant detection."

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Bullard Professor of Neurology, Harvard Medical School Chief Division of Genetics, Boston Children’s Hospital Investigator, Howard Hughes Medical Institute

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The nervous system is comprised of morphologically and functionally diverse neurons to support a web of unique neural networks. It is now known that individual neurons are also genetically heterogeneous, accumulating somatic mutations during development and aging. This mosaicism impacts cognition and behavior, and contributes to neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and stroke.

Unlike cancer mutations, somatic mutations in neural tissues are often non-clonal. Ultra-deep bulk sequencing of very small tissue samples offers one approach for detecting and characterizing these unique mutations, but is technically challenging and can be cost-prohibitive.

BioSkryb’s highly uniform single-cell whole genome amplification ([WGA](/products/)) technology ([PTA](/technology/)) eliminates the allelic imbalance and artifacts resulting from other WGA methods such as multiple displacement amplification (MDA). Combined with next-generation computational tools (such as SCAN2, see manuscript below), PTA enables the accurate and precise detection of both clonal and non-clonal somatic single nucleotide variants (SNVs), small insertions and deletions (indels), and copy number variation (CNV) in the genomes of single neurons. This represents a technological breakthrough in elucidating the enigma of brain and other neural mosaicism, ultimately supporting improved diagnosis and personalized treatment.